Tuesday, December 15, 2020

Concentration Camps in Modern History

Internments From the Spanish War to the Japanese-Americans

Mar 12, 2009
Michael Streich

The concentration camp has been used for over one hundred years by many nations at war including the British and Italians in Africa and the Germans during World War II.

Although the “concentration camp” is most always associated with Nazi Germany and the Holocaust of World War II, its uses began in the late 19th century, first by the Spanish in their attempt to bring to an end the Cuban insurgency that had begun in 1895, and then by the British in South Africa during the Boer War. The Italians employed concentration camps in Libya in the 1920s as part of General Graziani’s “pacification” program and in 1942 the United States put 112,000 persons of Japanese descent, most of whom were U.S. citizens, into camps.

Early Use of Concentration Camps

Concentration camps, derived perhaps from the Spanish term reconcentrado, refer to militarily supervised installations usually located in remote areas designed to contain or house thousands of civilians, usually anyone considered a threat to the regime. In the case of Spain and Britain, the concentration of civilians into camps was also accomplished to deprive the enemy in the field fighting a guerrilla war of local support. In some ways, the “Hamlet” strategy employed by the U.S. in Vietnam had the same goals in mind. Although not “concentration camps,” the strategic hamlets uprooted peasants and created indigenous antipathy.

The Spanish reconcentrados placed nearly all of Cuba’s native population into camps, causing U.S. President William McKinley to remark that this “was not civilized warfare…but extermination.” It can be argued that Senator Redfield Proctor’s March 17th, 1898 report to the U.S. Senate on the reconcentrados, personally witnessed during a fact-finding visit, was as much a cause for a war declaration as the sinking of the USS Maine.

One year later, Lord Kitchener, commanding the British forces in South Africa during the Boer War, ordered all Boer women and children placed in camps. According to Thomas Pakenham, “Between twenty thousand and twenty-eight thousand Boer civilians died of epidemics in these ‘concentration camps.’” Following substantial criticism and Parliamentary inquiry, the policy was reversed. Militarily, the policy was never successful as it only emboldened the Boer fighters. The same can be said of the Italian camps in Libya.

World War II Concentration Camps

The Nazis built their first concentration camp in 1933 near Munich to house political prisoners. The Dachau camp would serve as a model for future camps and many camp commanders received their initial training there. By the end of the war, the German camp system stretched throughout Europe and included a variety of camp types, from work camps and transport camps to the death camps like Auschwitz and Sobibor. What made the German camps so different was the variety of purpose: each type of camp was part of an integral and highly efficient master plan. The camp system was utilitarian in that it served as a direct contribution to the war effort (labor camps, for examples). Yet the camps also fulfilled Nazi ideological aspirations tied to the 1942 Wannsee Conference and the “Final Solution.”

In the United States, President Franklin Roosevent, by executive order (No. 9066), isolated all persons of Japanese descent living on the west coast and placed them into internment camps in the interior regions. Contemporary American History texts often refer to these as “concentration camps.” Despite two attempts through the Supreme Court to force a Constitutional appraisal (Hirabayashi v. U.S. 1943 and Korematsu vs. U.S. 1944), the camps remained until the war ended. The United States government apologized in the 1980s and granted cash reparations to those still alive at that time.

Historically, the use of concentration camps has done more to indict those nations responsible than to achieve any permanent military or political victory. Even in the twenty-first century, nations may be tempted to employ such means as a form of control yet, as history demonstrates, camps are always counter-productive. The current dilemma regarding the disposition of the Guantanamo detainees in Cuba is a microcosm of this problem. The United States continues to reap international condemnation for the existence of this camp, although the inmates are hardly innocent civilians and may be connected to terrorist organizations.

Sources:

G. J. A. O’Toole, The Spanish War: An American Epic 1898 (W.W. Norton & Company, 1984).

Thomas Pakenham, The Boer War (Random House, 1979).

James Ford Rhodes, The McKinley and Roosevelt Administrations 1897-1909 (The Macmillan Company, 1922).

Greg Robinson, By Order of the President: FDR and the Internment of Japanese Americans (Harvard University Press, 2001).

Michael Streich -

Using Titanic to Teach Late Victorianism

Creative Projects for History and Language Arts Teachers

Mar 30, 2010 Michael Streich

New York Herald on the Titanic Loss - Public Domain Image

The sinking of the Titanic is often portrayed as an illustration of class consciousness during the late Victorian period. Creative projects can detail these conflicts.

In the 1979 television movie S.O.S. Titanic, second class passenger Lawrence Beesley (an actual 1912 passenger) comments that the ship was a microcosm of the British social class. The subject of several movies as well as countless articles and books, the story of RMS Titanic can be used in History and Language Arts classes to develop interesting and creative projects that illustrate late Victorianism.

A Night to Remember

In the early 1960’s, Walter Lord’s book A Night to Remember [NY: Henry Holt and Company, 1955] was part of the reading curriculum of many high schools during the freshman year and was even condensed in some English texts. Long since replaced by other, more contemporary titles, Lord’s account is still riveting and highly readable.

A traditional project assignment has students reading Lord’s book and comparing his writings to the accuracy of any number of Hollywood films. The 1958 film based on Lord’s book featuring Kenneth Moore as Second Officer Lightoller is faithful to the facts – with minor exception to accuracy, but subsequent films are not.

Non-Conventional Projects

Titanic research allows for a wide spectrum of social history discoveries. The Vermont Country Store, for examples, sells Vinolia soap with an advertisement that the “luxurious” soap “sailed first class on the Titanic.” In the film A Night to Remember, one of the first scenes has a railroad passenger commenting on Titanic amenities in First Class and points to a Vinolia advertisement. Projects geared toward the living conditions in First Class suites can be fun and educational.

In 1997 I Salonisti produced a CD titled And the Band Played On: Music Played on the Titanic. Projects linking popular music of the time with Titanic bridge history with the Arts. RMS Titanic: “Dinner is Served” by Yvonne Hume [Stenlake Publishing, 2010 – expected availability date April 14] is a cornucopia of menus gathered by the great niece of the ship’s first violinist. Last Dinner on the Titanic by Rick Archbold and Dana McCauley [Hyperion, 1997] also lists menus and comments extensively on ship-board meals. Students love to bring food into classrooms; here is an opportunity to use food as an enhancement of a lesson plan.

Other Areas of Focus

After the loss of RMS Titanic, inquiries were held in London and by the U.S. Congress. Some topics of interest that relate to other disciplines might include:

Addressing the lack of life boats and adequate safety in emergencies (Spectator, April 20, 1912, “The Lessons of the Titanic” was one of the first media outlets to address this)
Plight of surviving White Star Line survivors: the Whit Star Line stopped all employee salaries at the moment the ship sank
Future life boat policies
24-Hour Marconi operations
Better iceberg detection and communication of threats

Avant Garde but Creative Projects

Clive Cussler’s 1976 novel Raise the Titanic [Viking Press, 1976] was a bestseller later turned into the disappointing 1980 film of the same name. Both efforts did not benefit from the later discovery of the ship on the bottom of the Atlantic. Irwin Allen’s 1966 TV series “The Time Tunnel” begins with the Titanic sinking as two mid 20th Century scientists are transported back in time and attempt to warn the captain, played by Michael Rennie.

Students with an interest in fringe topics can “get in on the action” by developing project topics that focus on time travel (like the “Time Bandits” in the 1981 film that also found themselves on RMS Titanic) or other related themes.

Illustrating Victorianism through Titanic Projects

Projects incorporating music, food, period dress, and replica artifacts all contribute to linking the disaster with a better understanding of Victorianism. One successful teacher simulated the U.S. Congressional Inquiry, assigning students roles as witnesses that included members of the crew, stewardesses like Violet Jessup (see Titanic Survivor: Memoirs of Violet Jessup, Sheridan House, 1997), and passengers (see Molly Brown: Unraveling the Myth, by Kristen Iversen, Johnson Books, 1999).

Using the Titanic as a visual backdrop, especially in April, the anniversary of the sinking, will enhance a broad, inter-disciplinary study of late Victorianism while linking key themes to transitional changes moving societies into the twentieth century.

Pilgrimage to Canterbury and the Death of Thomas Becket

Feb 21, 2011 Michael Streich

People Still Visit Sacred Sites of the Middle Ages - Mike Streich Photo Image

The cult of Thomas Becket spread throughout Europe after his murder at Canterbury and the many miracles attributed to the English saint.

By the time the Parson was finishing his tale, Chaucer’s pilgrims had arrived at Canterbury, a very different group from those pilgrims that journeyed to England’s most famous pilgrimage site after the 1170 murder of Thomas Becket. Becket was canonized three years after his death yet even before being proclaimed a saint, word of his miracles spread throughout Europe. He was the great saint of the late 12th Century and would endure into the next. Once the king’s chancellor, Becket came to represent everything significant about the pilgrimage, miracles, and relics.

Religious Pilgrimages Provided Grace to the Faithful

Thomas Becket was murdered by knights of King Henry II. After being appointed archbishop, the highest Church office in the land, Becket experienced a spiritual conversion that led him to challenge Henry’s increasing power over the English Church. The final break resulted in Becket’s murder at Canterbury Cathedral.

As word of Becket’s murder spread, so did his miracles. The monks at Canterbury kept a cistern filled with water that was diluted with the slain archbishop’s blood. Pilgrims drank the sacred water and there were reports of blind persons having sight restored after the water was smeared across their eyelids.

Canterbury became the fourth most popular pilgrimage destination in Christendom after Jerusalem, Rome, and Santiago da Compostella. It was also the wealthiest. The cult of Becket may have been the last major devotion in the Middle Ages. After Becket’s canonization, the process leading to sainthood was greatly extended and so-called hearsay evidence of miracles was frequently excluded.

The Legacy of Thomas Becket

Chaucer’s pilgrims traveled to Canterbury at the end of the 14Th Century. It was a time of religious schism and heretics. Early Church reformers not only challenged Becket, but cast doubt on his miracles and the efficacy of his relics. For secular leaders, Becket was also an enemy, a powerful yet humble Church apologist who sought to maintain the power and control of the Church over the state.

Becket’s most vocal disagreements concerned the Constitutions of Clarendon, established by the king to weaken the power of the Church. The final point was most important: degrading a member of the clergy accused of an ecclesiastical offense and then turning over the churchman to secular authorities for punishment. This action was the root cause of the legal term “double jeopardy.”

Becket’s Power After his Murder and Canonization

Becket was said to appear to those who called upon him in prayer. In one case, he healed a falcon, connecting him to God’s creation in a similar way St. Francis was connected through his ministry to animals. In a case involving hearsay evidence, Becket brought back to life a dead child.

Medieval saints deemed extraordinary achieved great notoriety in death. Often, they emerged as champions of the downtrodden peasants. Saints like Becket rivaled popes and kings even in death. Much of this ended under King Henry VIII and the destruction of Becket’s elaborate tomb at Canterbury.

Sources:

Rosalind and Christopher Brooke, Popular Religion in the Middle Ages: Western Europe 1000-1300 (Thames and Hudson, 1984)
G.G. Coulton, Chaucer and His England (Methuen & Co LTD, 1970)
Jonathan Sumption, Pilgrimage: An Image of Mediaeval Religion (Rowman and Littlefield, 1975)
Brian Tierney and Sidney Painter, Western Europe in the Middle Ages 300-1475, Fifth Edition (McGraw-Hill Inc., 1992)

Religious Diversity in Colonial America

Protestants and Catholics Establish Roots in the Thirteen Colonies

Dec 26, 2008 Michael Streich

Moravian Gemeinhaus at Bethabara, NC - Mike Streich

Early colonial history documents the diversity of faith traditions seeking to establish safe havens in which to practice their beliefs free from persecution.

From the earliest days of English colonization in the 17th Century, America was a land of many religious faith traditions. Out of this rich diversity, American notions of religious tolerance as well as the strong desire to separate church and state would emerge. At the same time, however, some early American faith traditions initially followed exclusionary policies that rejected ideals of religious equality, notably among New England Calvinists.

Religious Diversity in the American Colonies

Massachusetts was settled by Puritans and Separatist Pilgrims. Following John Calvin’s theological system, Puritans adhered to the “Covenant of Grace” and enforced a strict theocracy that rejected frivolous activities, Sunday recreation, and even holidays like Christmas. Puritans were to be a “visible kingdom” on earth, according to their governor, John Winthrop. Detractors were banished from the community or left of their own accord.

In the Chesapeake Bay colony of Virginia, the official religion was the Church of England. Sunday attendance was mandatory by everyone in the colony, whether they subscribed to Anglicanism or not. Here also the church held civil powers and received support from the state. Catholics could not act as judges in Virginia courts nor hold political offices. After the Revolution, the Church of England became the Episcopal Church, shedding its identity with British influences.

New Amsterdam was the chief colonial commercial center of the Netherlands until the Anglo-Dutch wars of the mid to late 17th century ceded it to Britain. Under the first Governor, Peter Stuyvesant, all Protestant faith traditions were welcome. A boatload of Jews seeking refuge, however, was turned away by the governor, his reasons couched in commercial considerations.

Pennsylvania was the land of Quakers. Founded by William Penn, the colony grew out of the city of “brotherly love,” Philadelphia. Protestants of all stripes, particularly those of Pietistic background, found a welcome in Penn’s Woods. This included the “sectarian” Pietists such as Mennonites, the Amish, Moravians, and Dunkers or Brethren. So-called “Churchly Pietists” like Lutherans.

Dr. Francis Daniel Pastorius brought significant numbers of German Protestants to Pennsylvania, founding Germantown. In 1688, he authored a declaration condemning slaveholding. This was the first such protest in the colonies against slavery in American History.

Other Religions in the Colonies

Following religious upheavals in France, Huguenots or French Calvinists fled to North America seeking a safe haven to practice their faith. Revolutionary War hero Paul Revere came out of the Huguenot tradition. In Maryland, Cecilius Calvert (Lord Baltimore), established a colony in 1634 for Catholics, although most settlers tended to be non-Catholic.

Scandinavian Lutherans settled in Delaware while Protestant Scots-Irish found their way into the back country of the Carolinas. At least six of the original colonial attempts were made in the name of religion: Plymouth, Massachusetts, Maryland, Connecticut, Rhode Island, and Pennsylvania.

By the early 18th century, the First Great Awakening would galvanize many colonists as revivals swept New England and the Middle Colonies. John Wesley traveled the colonies preaching a message that would build the Methodist Church in America. Puritanism would give way to the Congregationalist traditions. By the time of the Revolution, Mother Ann Lee arrived, building an Adventist community known as Shakers that would thrive well into the next century.

Legacy of Colonial Religious Diversity

From these earliest expressions of faith, a long religious tradition emerged and expanded over the next two hundred years of American history. Frequently changed or redirected during periods of “Awakenings” or spiritual revivals that were nationally universal, the unique and peculiar nature of American faith traditions can be traced back to the earliest days when persecuted Europeans seized an opportunity to practice their beliefs without the fear of reprisal.

Sources:

Alan Taylor, American Colonies (New York: Penguin/Viking Press, 2001)

Calvinism and Colonial Social Beliefs

The Impact of John Calvin on American Colonies

Aug 27, 2010 Michael Streich

Calvinism Taught the Importance of Family - Library of Congress Photo Image

John Calvin's theological system served as the core belief structure of many colonial societies including Pilgrims, Puritans, Presbyterians, and Huguenots.

As the 16th Century Reformation swept through central and northern Europe, a variety of differing theological interpretations evolved, each identifying with the greater movement called Protestantism. Within this movement, the teachings of French-born reformer John Calvin had a significant impact on the early English colonies in North America. Although colonial religions exhibited diversity within the movement, many colonial faith traditions represented the beliefs of Calvinism. This included the Pilgrims and Puritans (later the Congregationalists), Presbyterians, Dutch Reformed, and French Huguenots.

Calvinism Put into Practice in Colonial American Communities

John Calvin is often associated with Predestination, taken from his theological interpretation of “limited atonement.” While frequently misunderstood, Calvinists like the Puritans viewed this belief in terms of salvation or election. Members of the elect lived righteous lives which included hard work, keeping the Sabbath, and focusing all aspects of everyday life on giving glory to God.

Loving God was to cherish him and in a real-life experience, that entailed godly pride in everyday tasks. In later generations, this would be referred to as the “Puritan” or “Protestant” work ethic. Every occupation was blessed, whether lowly or socially important, because every man worked to give God glory and to exhibit outwardly to the community that he was a one of the elect.

Education and the Family Based on Calvinism

The Bible was the chief source of inspiration and instruction in any reformed church that followed Calvinism. Jonathan Edwards, the foremost colonial theologian during the Great Awakening, reminded his listeners that the Bible was, “a book that the great Jehovah has given to mankind for their instruction, without which we should be left in miserable darkness and confusion.”

Early childhood education, the purview of mothers in the household, utilized the Bible not only to teach reading and writing, but to instill morality and the cultural and social norms of a Calvinist theocracy (such as in Puritan New England). Harvard, the first college established in Colonial America, was a seminary for ministers and like Princeton, followed the theological principles of John Calvin.

Strong family identification was part of all Protestant beliefs. Much like Martin Luther, Calvin saw the father as the patriarch of the family with absolute authority over wife and children. According to historian Edmund Morgan, the “first premise of Puritan political and social thought” related to the family and focused on how the entrance of evil into the Garden of Eden perverted the perfect relationship between Adam, Eve, and their Creator.

For Puritans and other faith traditions embracing Calvinism, God not only blessed the family but deliberately chose the family through which church and state would evolve. Strong families preserved social order. After detailing Cotton Mather’s writings on how he trained his own children in spiritual things, Morgan comments that, “If the family failed to teach its members properly, neither the state nor the church could be expected to accomplish much.”

Legacy of Early Calvinism in Colonial America

Many of the applications of Calvin’s practical and moral theology found in colonial communities survived in American history. This included the notion of a work ethic and a strong sense of what constitutes a family. Twentieth century social debates on divorce, child custody, inter-racial marriages, and common-law marriage arose in opposition to these perceived traditional norms in American society.

Today, opponents of same-sex marriage frequently evidence accepted norms that, historically, are traced to Colonial beliefs founded on Calvinist principles. Although other Colonial faith traditions such as Quakers and a variety of Pietists did not accept some of the views of either Luther or Calvin, the core Protestant notions of family and hard work helped to form a near universal American basis that influenced future generations of Americans.

Sources:

Jonathan Edwards, The History of Redemption (Grand Rapids: Associated Publishers and Authors, Inc.)
Donald K. McKim, editor, Readings in Calvin’s Theology (Baker Book House, 1984)
Edmund S. Morgan, The Puritan Family (Harper, 1966)
Steven Ozment, Protestants: The Birth of a Revolution (Doubleday, 1992)
Edwin H. Palmer, The Five Points of Calvinism (Baker Book House, 1972)

Why we Still Need Medicaid

Michael Streich, Suite 101

First Published May 19, 2011

A key issue in the 2012 general election involves the future of Medicaid, created by President Lyndon B. Johnson’s efforts to combat the “war on poverty.” Johnson’s Great Society represented a massive extension of New Deal social legislation that expanded federal and state assistance to the elderly and disabled. Medicaid today includes a variety of health insurance programs for some of the neediest citizens, especially during times of economic crisis. The future of the program, however, may become victim to long-term budget cuts, a prospect being vociferously advocated by conservative Republicans and gaining limited momentum among some Democrats.

The Continued Need for Medicaid in Post Modern America

In July 1965, President Johnson inaugurated Medicaid, stating that, “No longer will older Americans be denied the healing miracle of modern medicine.” Medicaid represented “…the seeds of compassion…” Johnson’s remarks singled out both Franklin D. Roosevelt and Harry Truman, former presidents that began to plant those seeds. Today, however, such programs, according to former House Speaker Newt Gingrich, represent “social engineering.”

As Johnson noted in 1965, medical costs can easily consume life-long savings. In many cases, private health care was, for many years, denied to millions due to pre-existing conditions. Technology has also made it easier to create data bases used by insurers to catalog what medical prescriptions have been filled (one of the largest data bases for this is in Utah). The future of health care, whether through Medicaid, so-called “Obamacare,” or other reformist programs, will be determined by the motives of American citizens to provide adequate protection for the elderly and disabled.

The Historical Need for Social Justice and Basic Health Care

Considered one of America’s greatest presidents, Andrew Jackson defeated John Quincy Adams in the election of 1828 and proceeded to exercise what Senator William Marcy of New York later called the “spoils system.” Jackson’s use of political patronage replaced approximately ten percent of federal officeholders, some of them postmasters.

Historian Page Smith writes that, “…the general economic insecurity that characterized American life must be kept in mind…” Several of those dismissed committed suicide and most were left in destitution. In the 19^th Century, only charity existed to help the poor. The onset of any catastrophic illness turned life-long workers into beggars.

Working conditions became more aggravated following the American Civil War. According to historians, “…conditions of labor were almost uniformly deplorable…” Thousands of workers became unemployed after disabilities and work-related injuries. Civil War veterans waited through several presidential administrations to receive compensation for injuries sustained. Not until the 20^th Century was the plight of the laboring poor slowly addressed.

In Charles Dickens’ Christmas Carol Ebenezer Scrooge asks, “…are there no workhouses?” Pauperism was a common feature of a 19^th Century industrialized society whether in Europe or in the United States. In the 20^th Century, society in the post industrialized world paints itself as enlightened. In foreign affairs the United States seeks to promote democracy as witnessed by U.S. support for equal rights in the so-called Arab Spring.

Medicaid is Needed More than Ever

The poor are often the most vulnerable in any society. This includes millions of Americans receiving food stamps, school lunches, and medical support. Medicaid is representative of a social justice obligation. Among 2011 conservative Republicans, notably Tea Party members, the need is obscured by other large expenditures such as defense. According to the Winston Salem Journal (May 3, 2011), over 44 million Americans receive food stamps. Families USA estimates that 58 million Americans receive Medicaid support.

In some instances, those most critical have themselves benefitted. Senator Rand Paul of Kentucky, supported by the Tea Party, opposes federal programs like Medicaid yet as an ophthalmologist accepted federal monies for medical services. As a physician, Senator Paul would be in an excellent position to know the debilitating costs of healthcare, especially for the elderly.

Medicaid, though costly, is needed, providing necessary healthcare options to the poor and disabled. While abuse occurs, Medicaid must not become a “political football” in the 2012 general election. Too much is at stake as baby boomers retire and look toward the so-called golden years with dignity, respect, and appropriate care.

Sources:

A Consumer’s Guide to North Carolina Medicaid (Division of Medical Assistance, Raleigh, NC)

Lyndon Baines Johnson Library and Museum, Medicaid speech, July 30, 1965

J. Joseph Huthmacher, Senator Robert F. Wagner And The Rise of Urban Liberalism (Atheneum, 1968)

Page Smith, A People’s History of the United States, Volume 4 and Volume 6 (McGraw-Hill Book Company and Penguin Books)

*Copyright owned by Michael Streich. No reprints without written approval.

[In North Carolina, Governor Cooper (D) has pushed for the expansion of Medicaid but the Republican-led legislature has strenuously resisted]

Puritans Under James I and Charles I

Years of Persecution Led to Migration and Civil War

Michael Streich, Suite101

June 15, 2009

The conflict between James I and his son Charles I of England and the Puritans led to the American migration to Massachusetts and contributed to the English civil war of the mid 17^th-Century. Although many issues separated the king from the Puritans, the chief conflict arose over the governance of the English church; Puritans favored Presbyterianism to the Episcopal structure of the Anglican Church.

The Rise of Puritanism in England

Puritanism began in the early years of the reign of Elizabeth I, who ascended the throne in 1558. The former English queen, Mary, had attempted to restore Catholicism, dismantling the Church of England or Anglicanism, and persecuting Protestant leaders. Many of these Protestants fled to the continent, seeking refuge among Calvinist communities such as in Geneva.

Imbued with a strong sense of Calvinist theology, these exiles returned to England upon the death of Mary, beginning a long effort to “purify” the Anglican Church of Catholic influence. Puritans rejected the traditional clerical dress, church liturgy, and the Episcopal hierarchy. They believed in the “priesthood of all believers” and wanted to replace bishops, archdeacons, and priests with elders and pastors elected by the congregation.

Some English Calvinists went further, refusing to be a part of the established state church. These “separatists” preached an even more austere worship. Groups of these dissenters eventually left England for Calvinist Holland, deciding ultimately to journey to the New World where they established the Plymouth Bay Colony. These were the “Pilgrims” of American colonial history.

James I Comes to the English Throne

Elizabeth I died in 1603, having had no children. King James VI of Scotland, son of Mary Queen of Scots, became the next English king. Although Elizabeth had managed to maintain religious equilibrium during her reign, James, whose battles in Scotland with the emerging Scots Presbyterians had been on-going, was not so fortunate.

Even before reaching London, Puritans delivered a petition of their grievances to the new king. James I convened a meeting of bishops and Puritans at Hampton Court in 1604. The Hampton Court Conference resulted in the dismissal of all Puritan proposals. The only positive outcome was the decision to produce a new Bible, the King James Version, completed in 1611. James I was particularly opposed to the Puritan view of Presbyterianism, commenting “no bishop, no King.”

Both Puritans and Separatists strictly observed Sunday as “the Lord’s day.” Despite these views, James I issued his Book of Sports in 1618 which permitted Sunday recreation. By 1620, several English Separatists had had enough and migrated to the New World after spending some time in the Netherlands which was strongly Calvinist. These “Pilgrims” established Plymouth Bay. Separatists that stayed in England formed the first English Baptist Church.

Puritans Depart England

In 1625 James I died and was succeeded by his son, Charles I. Like his father, Charles supported the Anglican Church and suppressed Puritan worship. By this time, Parliament, at odds with the king over taxation issues, contained members of the rural gentry who happened to be Puritans.

Ruling under the belief of the “divine right of kings,” Charles disdained Parliament, imposed new taxes illegally, and supported the efforts of William Laud, Archbishop of Canterbury, whose Anglo-Catholicism was viewed as making the Church of England more Catholic. In 1628, the mass migration of Puritans to the New World began. Eventually, 20,000 left England to establish “godly” communities in New England.

Puritans remaining in England formed the backbone of resistance to the king once civil war broke out in 1642. The formation of the “Puritan Commonwealth” under Oliver Cromwell followed the 1649 execution of Charles I. The Stuart dynasty was restored, however, in 1660 with the accession of Charles II. Puritanism would never achieve the goals of purifying the Anglican Church.

Sources:

Antonia Fraser, Cromwell the Lord Protector (Alfred A. Knopf, 1974)

Steven Ozment, The Age of Reform 1250-1550 (Yale University Press, 1980)