Causes of European Exploration and Colonization
Christopher Columbus’ first voyage to the Americas in 1492 inaugurated what is frequently termed the Age of Exploration and within 100 years ignited an often volatile competition between the emerging nation states of Europe. Early explorations, followed by settlements, colonization, and the establishment of trade relationships, had many causes. As the rivalry between European nations grew, these causes were transformed into mercantile necessities.
The Voyages of Columbus Begin a Process
Columbus’ objective was to sail west, across the Atlantic, in order to reach the wealthy trading stations in Asia. According to historians, he carried with him a copy of Marco Polo’s experiences in China. Lucrative European trade with Asia had been severely curtailed by wars in the Middle East, culminating with the Ottoman conquest of Constantinople in 1453. At the same time, Portuguese navigators had sailed along the western coast of Africa, eventually rounding the tip and sailing on to India.
Wealthy Europeans craved spices from Asia as well as silks and sugar. This trade had helped to further the prosperity of Italian city states like Venice and could be traced back to the time of the Crusades. Columbus himself was born in Genoa, the map-making capital of Europe.
Columbus, however, never made it to Asia, landing instead on Caribbean islands in the course of four voyages. Instead of sending silks, gold, and spices back to Spain, his ships brought back Native Americans as slaves, tobacco, and the first potatoes in Europe. Thus began the Columbian Exchange, introducing new agricultural products in Europe that would revolutionize diets and the health of millions.
Competition Between the Great Powers of Europe
Within 100 years of that first voyage, Spain claimed all of Central and South America as well as southern portions of North America. The other great mercantile powers carried their European wars to the new continent and, in the process, began the competition of colonization.
The Portuguese claimed Brazil and established sugar plantations, introducing the African slave trade in the process. Along the North American eastern seaboard, private English groups arrived to settle, create new communities, and seek their fortune. Virginia began as a for-profit venture by a joint-stock company. The same was true of other proprietary colonies. Other colonies were established on the basis of religious freedom: the desire to practice faith traditions at odds with the Church of England.
New Amsterdam colony, a for-profit Dutch endeavor, was only interested in trading with Native Americans at Fort Orange, now Albany, although they excluded Jews and Catholics. In Canada, the profitable fur trade enticed French colonization. The single most important cause of these many endeavors was to successfully compete in a mercantile system designed to promote a nation’s prosperity and power.
Changing Causes Related to Early Empire Building
By the time Cortes had subdued the Aztec peoples and Pizarro in Peru exploited the Inca out of their wealth, the causes of early exploration were already transformed. The silver mines at Potosi and the Spanish fleets bringing back tons of gold to Europe made Spanish claims to the Americas vulnerable.
The Netherlands, having won full independence at the conclusion of the Thirty Years’ War, competed with their long time enemy, Spain. England’s Elizabeth I, no lover of Spain, approved and benefited from raids on Spanish outposts and ships. Upon her death, a massive colonization effort was mounted from the Carolinas to Massachusetts.
Entrenched in Quebec and Montreal, France cultivated good relations with Native Americans in order to profit from the fur trade. A secondary cause of French actions was to convert the Indians to Catholicism.
Causes of “New World” Exploration and Colonization
Causes of European actions in the Americas were many and changed as the dynamics of colonization became more defined. European competitors, reflecting different cultures and religions, attempted to imprint their identities on settlements established for a variety of reasons. For North America, this represented the first phase in creating a diverse society.
References:
- Daniel Boorstin, The Discoverers: A History of Man’s Search to Know his World and Himself (New York: Random House, 1983)
- Michael V. Gannon, The Cross in the Sand: The Early Catholic Church in Florida 1513-1870 (Gainesville: University of Florida Press, 1965)
- John R. Hale, Age of Exploration (New York: Time-Life Books, 1966)
- Hammon Innes, The Conquistadors (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1969)
- Alan Taylor, American Colonies (New York: Penguin Group, 2001)
- Jack Weatherford, Indian Givers: How the Indians of the Americas Transformed the World (New York: Fawcett Books, 1988)
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