Development and Celebration of Epiphany

A Church Festival Ending Christmas Dated to the Early 4th Century

© Michael Streich

 Dec 21, 2008

Twelfth Night has long been associated with the visitation of Magi from the East, but Epiphany also recounts the baptism of Jesus and his first miracle at Cana.

Celebrated on January 6th, Epiphany represents one of the three most important Christian holidays in the church cycle. Most directly, Epiphany recalls the visit of the Magi or “Wise men” from the east, but it is also associated with the baptism of Jesus as well as the first miracle, performed at the wedding in Cana. Celebrated as early as the 4th Century, scholars have traced January 6th as a direct reference to Christ’s baptism to the 2nd century.

Development of the Festival

Historians have traced the first Epiphany celebrations to the eastern Mediterranean region in the early 4th century. Significantly, the festival appeared to parallel a pagan festival centered around Alexandria in Egypt that was tied to the winter solstice. This pagan festival celebrated the birth of the god Aeon in the temple of Kore. [1]

Charles Panati [2] asserts that, “Whereas the solstice caused the banks of the Nile to overflow, the sacred birth caused water in royal and public fountains to miraculously turn into wine.” Hence, January 6th was equated by the Christian Church with the date of the Cana wedding feast when Jesus turned water into wine.

The presence of the Bethlehem star that led the Magi to Christ also figures prominently in the evolution of Epiphany in the church. Sometimes called the Festival of the Lights, it marks that cycle in the church leading from the winter solstice to the return of the sun. R. W. Scribner [3] details this cycle of lights as it expanded in medieval Europe, moving from mid January to February 1st, the feast of St. Bridget, “…a suitable introduction to the feast of the Purification or Lichtmess (Candlemas).”

The Magi from the East

The story of the “wisemen” or Magi (magoi in Greek) is recounted in the second chapter of Matthew. Contrary to tradition, Matthew does not state how many there were. Settling on the number three appears to come, according to most commentaries, from the three separate gifts enumerated in the Gospel: gold, frankincense, and myrrh. In the ancient world, all three of the gifts were considered kingly.

Although depicted as kings in church tradition, there is no indication that they actually were. The Greek term magoi (used also in Acts) can refer to sorcery and magic. In this case, since they came from the east following a particular star, it is believed that they were Persian astrologers from the Mesopotamian region. It should also be noted that they were non-Jews.

Whereas Luke has Christ born in a manager, the Magi found Christ in a “house.” Bible commentators speculate that their arrival was anywhere from 6 months to a year after his birth. This would also explain Herod’s order to have all infants two years or younger slain.

Light versus Darkness and Good versus Evil

Just as the Magi represent goodness and the fulfillment of prophecy (see Isaiah 60.6), Herod’s response represented evil. James Frazer identifies the “period of twelve days between Christmas and Epiphany” as a “witching time” [4] when Europeans burned wood to ward off evil. “The last day of the mystic twelve days is Epiphany or Twelfth Night, and it has been selected as a proper season for the expulsion of the powers of evil in various parts of Europe.”

For some Eastern Church faith tradition, such as the Armenians, the Epiphany is the true day of Christmas. The traditions see December 25th as having explicit pagan connotations, something Augustine and other church fathers seem to admit. Epiphany celebrates the visit of the Magi, Christ's baptism, and the Cana miracle.

Sources and Notes:

[1]Williston Walker, A History of the Christian Church 3rd Ed. (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1970) p. 154.

[2] Charles Panati, Sacred Origins of Profound Things: the Storoes Behind the Rites and Rituals of the World’s Religions (New York: Penguin, 1999) pp. 217-219.

[3] R.W. Scribner, Popular Culture and Popular Movements in Reformation Germany (London: the Hambledon Press, 1987) pp. 4-5.

[4] James G. Frazer, The Golden Bough: A Study in Magic and Religion (New York: The MacMillan Company, 1966) p. 650.

The copyright of the article Development and Celebration of Epiphany in Catholic Mass & Holy Days is owned by Michael Streich. Permission to republish Development and Celebration of Epiphany in print or online must be granted by the author in writing.

In many ways the Republicans are still "waving the bloody shirt" For many  in the South the Civil War is still not over. Candidate for governor Mark Robinson said he would bring back a limited for of slavery. My own brother, who has become after thirty years in the hinterlands what we call redneck hates Governor Cooper because he removed three Confederate statues in Raleigh.

In 1876 we really did have a stolen election. The Republicans Pulled out all the stops and filled their suitcases with money to buy and bribe so they would win. Poor Samuel Tilden could have mounted a strong challenge but he was too much of a gentleman and let Ohio Henry Hayes play the compromise, the political patsy. I wonder how he slept.

Most Americans were clueless. Well, NOT this time!

I just read a brief mini-article on so-called myths of the Civil War. Things like U.S.Grant's alcoholism and Robert E Lee's slaves. The sources seemed sound, such as  Eric Foner.

I was reminded of an honors American History class I taught. On one occasion I gave the students copies of Howard Zinn's massive American History opus, A People's History of the United States. One of Zinn's facts regarding the American Revolution was that George Washington, as commander-in-chief, had to deal with mutinies amongst his troops. This was the first time my students had ever heard of such a thing. Washington was a hero and most of my students were very conservative. Needless to say, the information was badly received and I had several challenges. 

But I was reminded of the Twilight Zone episode, The Changing of the Guard. Was anything I was teaching falling on receptive ears? as in the Television episode, could I honestly go home believing the Thomas Mann Maxim,  "Be ashamed to die until you have won some victory for humanity.."

America in the 21st Century was very different. We were not fighting fascism or Communism. We were fighting to be wealthy and self-powerful. Moral and ethics no longer mattered. so old, retired teachers went out to die.

Was it too passé To look back at Mr. Chipps? When the evening of my life I look back and ask, Did I fill the world with love?

My students snickered. They hated Howard Zinn and they mistrusted me. I was the teacher who quashed the Jingoist Club.

They all wanted to get into good colleges. Preferably the top names like Duke, and Princeton, and Yale. I didn't dare state that Yale's benefactor was a slaver. Modern students can be selective and step over a  bad apple without every looking back.

In our ultra affluent society they breeze through their Ivy leaf, blue blood schools and change the world, making what would be a more segregated place. 

It becomes a matter of language and global experiences.

And It comes early. I took a group of mostly freshmen to Sweden and they fell in love with the clean, organized city of Stockholm. They all wanted to live here  they got older. The same happened in Boston and in Sydney and in Paris. As my principal used to advise me, all students should see Paris, He was wrong, of course, most students hated Paris only because the Fresh hated Americans or so we were told. We may have shouted, "Lafayette we are here," but that was two hundred years ago. 

I closed out my teaching career with the knowledge that I had made a difference. They were the scions of Republican conservative Catholic families. and that was enough for me to know. Someone would made a difference,

 

THIS is how America Votes

In North Carolina's newly created 6th Congressional District, several Republicans vied to bring home the prize. It was all the more worthwhile because the incumbent, Representative Kathy Manning declined to seek reelection. The new 6th district had been gerrymandered by the Republican led state legislature so as to make her reelection chances nearly impossible.

The winner of the race was lobbyist for Blue Cross and Blue Shield and an aide to Senator Ted Budd, Addison McDowell, a local, from Davidson County. McDowell received 21, 206 votes. The district has a population of 790,000 souls. His voted percent was under 30%. He had been endorsed by former President Trump.

He was followed by former Congressman Mark Walker, with strong ties to the evangelical community. His TV ads claimed he was endorsed by "pastors." During the campaign period, Walker trashed former President Trump but Trump actually called him and offered him a job in the Trump election organization. Moral are are morals but money is money.

The 6th Congressional district is comprised of 6 disparate countries. McDowell faces no opposition in the general election on November 5th. This is the face of American elections. No choices and one well-connected man elected by a mere fraction of the voters in a contrived district. God Bless America. 

Stay tuned - Meghan Markle, the new Lola Montez. But can she dance? 

The Focus of History Teaching

"Don't turn my son into a lawyer," the woman scowled as she helped to empty her son's locker full of books. As a high school freshman he had won the regional Moot Court with a class buddy and almost went to the state competition. One of the judges, however, noted that as freshmen the two still had three years whereas their competitors were two senior girls.

In the next few years he participated in speech and debate competitions, a variety of sports, and was part of the Model Congress team that went to Boston every spring to compete in an event facilitated by Harvard University. In that, he won a blue ribbon. 

But he didn't become a lawyer. Rather, he went to medical school. 

We often forget that kids, as they get older, tend to focus on their own goals and not those others set for them. Some parents appreciate this while others threaten to sue not only the school but the teachers and counselors that they perceive weren't doing their jobs. 

My part in this was two-fold: writing letters of recommendation that set the students apart from everyone else and being an unpaid faculty advisor to the many extra and co-curricular activities the school offered. Once, I was even asked to coach tennis, a task I was completely unprepared for.

The fact that I knew my subject area really well didn't matter. What mattered was the results of a stellar recommendation letter or blue ribbon awards that were attached to high school resumes in the hopes of getting the most attention from college admissions officers. 

Grades mattered, of course, but if you had climbed Mt. Everest during a summer break, to offer an exaggerated skill, students were guaranteed a closer look. One dean of admissions at a prominent southern university told an applicant who was accepted that the recommendation letter written by his teacher which illustrated in detail how the student had overcome obstacles was the deal-breaker in terms of admission. 

I loved teaching history and I think I was very good at it. But what mattered more to parents and school officials was the ability to help students get into their dream colleges. It even meant taking groups of students in the summer on "educational tours" of Europe or the Southern Pacific. There can't be that many students who can boast on their resume that they spent time in a Queensland rain forest or climbed to the top of Ayer's Rock in the Australian outback. 

Of course it was fun for me as well and the other teacher chaperons. "Foreign exchanges" were integral to the college application process, adding another layer to a complex and already padded resume. 

Ironically, history today is a subject relegated to the bottom of important subjects. One prominent university in my state doesn;t even require a single history course for graduation. I considered my primary vocation to be the indispensable aspect of future success and social survival. If the Civil War, for example, doesn't matter anymore in our history, than everything else is moot. 

So we turned out doctors and lawyers. Hopefully successful human beings that know the history that provided for their success. Once that stops, teaching will have no more focus.

 Happy Birthday Mom! 93 Today.

You are a wonderful person, totally loving, respecting all life including your thousands of bird fans around the house. We all miss you everyday and I pray you are in a better place.

BIDEN OLD? NO WAY

When I turned 70 a close friend I've known most of my life called me to offer congratulations on my "milestone." Because of health issues I can no longer teach. My supervisor was afraid I might "keel over" from a heart attack in the middle of a lecture. I would have hoped that if that happened, I would be discussing FDR's court packing scheme of 1937. At the time, there was a growing defense of elder people in history who accomplished great things. In my own time I think of Dr. Henry Kissinger whose advice is still sought after and who still travels internationally. Dr. Kissinger is 100.

That brings me to President Biden. Too old? Not by a long shot. If nothing else the House, much young, has been far more impetuous and childlike, kids in a sandbox fighting over marbles. The President is above that, dealing with immense international problems while presiding over a growing economy.

Biden is not too old. He may be, age-wise, just right to deal with the complicated issues of our democracy.

Notre Dame Cathedral credit: Mike Streich

St.Denis in Paris photo by Streich

 Gothic cathedrals Date: May 16, 2018 Notre-Dame Cathedral in Paris.  The rise of the Gothic form began in the mid 12th century. Gothic cathedrals, often taking decades to construct, began to appear in cities and towns throughout Europe, although French cathedrals like Amiens and Notre Dame in Paris are some of the finest and most spectacular of these great houses of worship. Gothic cathedrals served many purposes beyond their chief function as seats of local bishops and archbishops. 

 Gothic cathedrals were the visual representation of God’s kingdom and, as such, provided spiritual education to the illiterate masses. They also functioned as the hub of town commerce and characterized civic pride. Gothic cathedrals are still used as active churches today, allowing Christians to worship and celebrate their faith amidst the supreme expression of Medieval piety.

 Gothic architecture changed during the three phases: early Gothic (late 12th and early 13th centuries in France (Notre-Dame in Paris and the Carthes Cathedral), classical Gothic peak around 1220 (Reims Cathedral and Cathedral in Amiens) late Gothic (14th and 1st decades of 15th century throughout Europe). Gothic architecture or style (lat: Gothicus: belonging to Goths) was originally concealed by the name Giorgio Vasari who wanted to say that, from the point of view of the Italian Renaissance, that style was barbaric.

 Gothic Cathedrals as a Spiritual Story Book During the Middle Ages, most Europeans were illiterate peasants. Their daily lives revolved around the Church, from when they arose in the morning until sunset. Life on earth was merely a brief sojourn in the overall working of God’s plan. This message was constantly reinforced by the sculptures, stained glass windows, relics, and other adornments found in Gothic cathedrals.

 Depictions of the saints and Apostles, Old and New Testament stories, and Church doctrine like the final judgment comprised the images on the stained glass windows as well as outdoor and indoor sculptures and carvings. Alfons Dierick, in his book on the windows at Chartres Cathedral, states that “the faithful ‘read’ the stained glass windows.” Additionally, the cathedral as a total structure was a microcosm of God’s universal kingdom and the cosmology of Medieval theology. Dierick comments that the Gothic cathedral was an “image of light, strength and repose, symbolic of the faith of the Middle Ages.”

 In most cases, cathedrals were dedicated to “our lady,” the Virgin Mary depicted as both the Queen of Heaven as well as the most exalted of females, chosen to be the mother of Christ. The Cathedral as a Commercial Hub Still today European cathedrals serve as market areas, their squares frequently filled with vendors. This is most evident in November and December when Christmas markets appear in many cities and towns under the shadows of cathedral spires. The cathedral was tied to town and city revenue in many ways during the Middle Ages.

 All great cathedrals displayed holy relics. Because pilgrimage was a key element of Medieval religious practices, churches that held important relics became key destinations, bringing in thousands of pilgrims that spent money in the town. In 1087, merchants from the Italian city of Bari forcibly stole the remains of St. Nicholas of Myra in Asia Minor. This action increased the popularity and prosperity of Bari. Cathedral chapters, charged with the cathedral revenues, often held financial stakes in local merchant enterprises. This was true at Amiens and Cologne as well as a number of other cathedral towns. 

Other Benefits of Gothic Cathedrals Basilica of St Denis. Photo credited by Michael Streich Basilica of St Denis.  The draw of Gothic cathedrals came from their immensity as well as their interior beauty, enhanced by the myriad of stained glass windows, an art that can be traced to St. Denis in Paris in 1146 and the brilliant planning and facilitation of the Abbot Suger. Beyond the spiritual education of peasants and towns folk, cathedrals, like Notre Dame de Paris, became associated with some of the earliest universities. Cathedral “schools” had been around as early as Charlemagne, who established a school run by English Benedictines at the Aachen Cathedral, Germany’s first cathedral. 

But in the High Middle Ages, early universities often began as an extension of cathedral ministries, such as the University at Paris. Gothic cathedrals played a significant role in the urban, social, and economic development of European towns and cities. They still stand today and function as active churches.

 Sources:

 Rosalind and Christopher Brooke, Popular Religion in the Middle Ages: Western Europe 1000-1300 (Thames and Hudson, 1984)

 Alfons Dierick, The Stained Glass at Chartres (Berne: Hallwag Ltd., 1960)

 Andrew Martindale, Gothic Art From the Twelfth to the Fifteenth Century (New York: Frederick A. Praeger, 1967)

 By: Mike Streich

Read more at: https://www.shorthistory.org/middle-ages/church-in-the-middle-ages/gothic-cathedrals/  

Joe Biden should not go to the Middle East. The world already knows we support Israel. Additionally, as the humanitarian crisis balloons into a nearly impossible problem, the world will judge Israel for permitting a greater human disaster while obliterating Hamas. And that is a good thing. Hamas is a terrorist organization and needs to be obliterated. Like ISIS and like El Quida. But, It is too dangerous for President Biden to shuttle between Arab leaders.

The question remains: what to do with an entire population who, according to history, were originally driven from their homeland two generations ago and funneled into Gaza City, an urban interpretation of a concentration camp. As the vernacular saying states: what goes around comes around. And that will be the long term historical trajedy.

When my friend come from Charlotte to Winston Salem to take me to the Medical Center for a procedure, we always end by stopping at Cagney's restaurant on Stratford Road. Cagney's is one of those city legends with incarnations sprouted up in Winston Salem bording towns. It is comfort food done really well and the menu can only be described as all inclusive, enough to give any northern diner a run for the money.

Our meal of choice is, invariably, the perennial special, meatloaf, mashed potatoes and gravy with your choice of two sides, usually cold or hot vegetables. additionally, you can select corn broad, a regular roll, or toast.For us, this is a meal made in heaven and very seldom duplicated anywhere.  

At one point Cagney's was competing with the Cloverdale Kitchen, also a legendary eatery steeped in tradition and engraved in the culinary memories of hundreds of patrons. Cloverdale particularly did vegetable soup right and sold it by the quarts. but the owners, sons of early Greek founders. saw business falling off in the later afternoon and evening and so decided to close after the noon lunch rush.

Cagney's which sits at the bottom of the sloping shopping center is always full. Across town, on Reynolda Road, Mamma Zoe's is another superb comfort food establishment, refurbished after the start of the pandemic to allow for more patron space.  The wait times still see many folks, most elderly, patiently waiting for tables. 

They wait because the food is excellent, affordable, and memorable. Desserts  are large and plentiful and it is quite impossible to leave hungry from Mamma Zoe's.

And every establishment uses delivery services or encourages patron pick-up.

Every city had it's specially known fast food joints that leave you satisfied and clamoring for more. But few leave a lasting impressions based on the menu, the fast service and the down home welcoming atmosphere. It is part of southern history. Every town had at least one place, often doubling at a pharmacy or all-purpose store that had a lunch counter or tables to accommodate the hungry wanderers. 

My friend wish, all the time, that Cagney's would open a restaurant in Charlotte. But is is not yet that regional. We hope that it will someday be so,  

 It doesn't do any good to complain, even to oneself. History has ceased to be a major concern for most Americans and even our key leaders, like former President Trump, often get it wrong. But then, who cares that we didn't have airports in the Revolutionary War? Try fully explaining the Boston Tea Party to students whose ONLY reference to tea is southern style sweet ice tea! One wrote, on a quiz, the Indians poured buckets and buckets of tea into Boston Harbor.

History teaching has taken backseat to other disciplines that seem to make more sense like science, math, and even aviation. But, what happened a hundred years ago or five hundred years ago will come back to haunt us. Paul Kennedy, in his book The Rise and Fall of Great Powers,all but predicted that world powers rise and fall based on many different factors, including economic ones.

I was a history teacher, instructor and, according to my community college chairperson, an adjunct professor. Now I wonder why I entered education half way through a life career as an unsuccessful businessperson. Maybe I was living a life long dream that flowed from my history-loving father and a German family with deep ties to World War II.

There is much talk today about the decline of the American Republic, perhaps a parallel story to Ancient Rome. Gibbon's Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire was contemporary in it's publication to the precious documents that set up the American democratic experiment. President Abraham Lincoln, in his Gettysburg Address asked if this nation would endure.

I would have enjoyed teaching until my body fully gave out. But I was stopped by a former student who accused me of misconduct. It was his word against mine, even though I was out of the country when the so-called indiscretion took place. I took it all as a sign. The church school did not support me.

Then in 2011 I became incapacitated with a major heart attack, fatty liver disease, and a host of other ailments like COPD and kidney dysfunction. My saintly mother passed in September 2012. She had always been my support.

I wrote history. Over 1500 articles for an on-line Canadian group out of Vancouver. But by 2013 they too found themselves bankrupt and relegated to the pits of Internet limbo. But, I still think getting the message out is vitally important: History matters! Perhaps more now than ever before.

It is Saturday and I wake up to news about a major Hamas Strike against Israel. And, secondarily, a 6 point earthquake in Afghanistan. All over the globe conflicts loom and, of course, the Ukraine war is still in brutal swing. But now Israel. And, here on Saturday there is no news, just football games. I enjoy sports as much as anyone, but how can sports mask the reality of bloodshed all over the world.

President Biden promised solidarity. We support Israel. But there will never be lasting peace in the Middle East, at least not as long as we prefer football over tanks and missiles. And only last night I re-watched the 1977 film, Black Sunday with Robert Shaw and Bruce Dern.

Israel should remind us that history repeats. Whether it is the prophet Jeremiah lamenting the fall of Jerusalem or Titus destroying the city hundreds of years later, history repeats and we dare not forget it. I have been to the Forum Romanum and seen the arches, the trophies of long past wars. The monuments of the past, even our American relatively short past, stand around us and we debate their on going relevance and value.

Was Robert E Lee a brilliant general of a war criminal, a traitor? Debates about simple grey clad soldiers carved in stone or displayed in bronze, feed our frenzy to erase history. Everyone has a good reason. Regardless, history matters. One hundred years ago history will still matter, even if human beings live under domes to survive.

And we will never learn from history. As fascinating as the study can be, it is eventually buried like the civilizations of early Mesopotamia, covering the lie that somehow human beings have solved the questions of war and peace, good and evil.

  

For decades various Christian denominations have sent summer groups from their varied churches to the Caribbean Islands as well as to Mexico and Central American countries in order to spread the Word of God and demonstrate Christian action through the good works of church building. This is the ever on-going nature of American missions, started as a strong movement in the 19th Century.

Both before the Civil War, as a result of the Second Great Awakening, and after the Civil War Protestants sent missionaries to Asia, Africa, and South America. In some cases they established hospitals and schools while teaching the Gospel. This zeal continues until this day, even though imperialistic national motives are no longer in force.

The notion that Imperialism begat missions or the other way around has been debated for many years. Liberal academics point to examples of American and European missions working side by side with their respective governments civil servants and military cohorts. As nations declared their independence, they nationalized western businesses such as oil companies and mines producing precious stones as well as needed elements such as copper and zinc. 

Additionally, missionaries were sent packing, in some areas violently. Nuns in the Congo, for example, were murdered because they identified, as a group, with the utter brutality of the Belgian overlords.

In China, missionaries were chased out of the country by the Communists and fledgling Christians started to operate underground. Large groups such as the Catholics wanted to protect their investments and assets and leaned to making deals with the Communists. The Vatican and Peking still trifle over who has ultimate say over the elevation of bishops. 

But in the twenty-first century, churches seeking to spread the Gospel plan trips to build and/or repair churches, build new structures, and basically strengthen the infrastructure of a church in the Dominican Republic or Nicaragua, or Colombia, or a dozen other South American nations. Meanwhile, their citizens long to come to America.

It could be anywhere. I recently drove past a local church advertising such a project and, of course, requesting money. It was the downtown area. Although the city has greatly improved and upgraded these streets, there are still many homeless people encamped in parks and in remote parking areas. The city has safe places like Samaritan's Kitchen, but there iare limitations on numbers served. 

Homelessness is a serious problem in the United States. In Greensboro, North Carolina, the state has bought the old, defunct Hebrew Academy and will turn it into a sanctuary for unaccompanied Mexican children up to the age of 18. So far, 800 will be housed there. But that doesn't address the indigenous homeless problem.

This points to the fact that we have people in our midst that need Jesus. We do not need to spend countless dollars to fly to another country when the need is great in our very backyard. It is a need for food, for shelter, for education, and for jobs that are skill training. 

We need the old American Settlement Houses for our Rio Grande swimming fellow humans. I myself am an immigrant as were my parents. We all learned skills and my parents capitalized on their European skills. We made it. I'm not rich by any stretch of the imagination, but I'm alive and "making it."

Foreign missions must begin in our own back yard.Christians in other poorer countries must be taught how to alleviate poverty in their communities and live Jesus everyday as a living example.   

 

Early 19th Century Revolutionary Movements

Although unified by nationalistic goals, the various revolutionary movements in the wake of the 1815 Congress of Vienna were the products of various motives and ideals.

The years after the defeat of Napoleon Bonaparte and the reestablishment of legitimate rulers by the Congress of Vienna were marked by growing demands for political, social, and economic change among some Europeans. Napoleon, who once referred to himself as nothing more than an “upstart soldier” in a letter to Austria’s Prince Metternich, had unleashed powerful forces within the continental empires and kingdoms. Nationalism, frequently fueled by 19th century liberal values, challenged the reimposed power structures founded on strict principles of conservatism.

Post Congress Revolutions

Revolution and popular unrest broke out throughout Europe following the Congress of Vienna. Their causes were many: ethnic nationalism, reaction to unacceptable political institutions, the desire for independence, resistance to efforts at recolonization (Central and South America), and idealistic motivations.

Early 19th Century revolutions included

• Spain in 1820
• Naples in 1820
• Greece in 1821
• Russia in 1825
• France in 1830

Unrest in Poland, Hungary, Belgium, and Serbia can also be attributed to nationalistic movements while in Central and South America former Spanish colonies declared their independence.

The reaction of the great European powers was mixed. Britain was chiefly interested in its commercial empire and resisted direct intervention, particularly after the death of Lord Castlereagh. The Decembrist Revolt in Russia required no intervention. In St. Petersburg, the new Tsar, Nicholas I, easily suppressed the small group of elite officers behind the revolutionary plot.

Greece, however, was another matter. Greek independence from the archaic Ottoman Empire was supported by Britain, chiefly for strategic reasons that meshed with global economic policies. Additionally, European intellectuals and Romanticists like the poet Lord Byron idealistically identified Greece with its classical and democratic past.

Revolutionary Activity Crushed

Poland had struggled to regain independence ever since the final partition of its lands by Prussia, Austria, and Russia. Under Napoleon, the Duchy of Warsaw reappeared briefly, but lost any semblance of self-rule after a series of revolts were crushed by Tsar Nicholas I in 1832.

Student unrest within the thirty-nine states of the German Confederation resulted in harsh restrictions placed on universities by Austria’s Prince Metternich. Metternich’s Carlsbad Decrees dissolved student organizations and imposed censorship not only on written material, but on what was being taught. Many of these students championed a united Germany, a similar goal found among young Italians.

In Russia, Nicholas I, referred to as the “Iron Tsar,” issued restrictions that forbade Russians from attending European universities and strengthening censorship. Not until the end of the Crimean War when Alexander II became Tsar would these restrictions be lifted.

Revolutionary Activity Supported

The Haitian Revolt, led by Toussaint L’Ouverture, was one of the first “New World” successful endeavors. Taking place during the time of Napoleon’s reign, its success was clandestinely supported by Britain and ultimately resulted in the Louisiana Territory sale to the United States in 1803.

After the defeat of Napoleon, other Spanish colonies declared independence. Leaders like Simon Bolivar, the so-called “George Washington of South America,” led efforts to end Spanish hegemony. Spain was in no position to challenge these movements.

By the end of the Napoleonic Era, Britain had established lucrative trade agreements with many newly independent countries and in 1823 the United States issued the Monroe Doctrine, blocking Spain – or any European country, from attempting to recolonize the hemisphere.

Incremental Successes of Revolutionary Goals

Revolutionary activity continued in Europe throughout the 19th Century but only achieved modest success. Although Alexander II feed the Russian serfs in 1861, he was assassinated by revolutionaries before he could begin the process of granting Russians a constitution. In England, Parliamentary efforts like the Great Reform Bill addressed political inequities, but much remained to be done. Even in France, where revolutions in 1830 and 1848 began with promise, ruling elites soon turned back the tide of reform.

Sources:

• Charles Breunig, The Age of Revolution and Reaction, 1789-1850 (New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 1970)
• C. Edmund Maurice, The Revolutionary Movement of 1848-9 in Italy, Austria-Hungary, and Germany with some Examination of the Previous Thirty-Three Years (New York: Greenwood Press, 1969)

Michael Streich

Former Adjunct Instructor, History & Global Studies

Posted on Jul 8, 2009

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 French President Macron's advice to stop the riots tells parents to keep their children at home. This is like a certain French queen (allegedly) said, "let them eat cake!" Macron needs to stop attending Elton John concerts while the streets of major French cities are burning. Time for Macron's mother to keep him home.

History Looks Back

Toward the latter part of spring in 2023, people hovered around their smart devices trying to ascertain the progress of Congressional debt talks. President Biden had cut short his G-7 meeting to broker an end to the process but many observers thought Biden had procrastinated for months. His counterpart, Speaker Kevin McCarthy was no better. Each represented divergent priorities for the national budget, all of which impinged on the debt ceiling being raised.

At one point the budget had been balanced when President George W Bush was elected president in 2000. But Republican led wars in  Afghanistan and Iraq raised the budget and national debt substantially. Then came the pandemic which cost America 16 trillions of dollars or 90% of the national GDP. (JAMA network, October 12, 2020)

During the 1929 Great Crash of the Stock Market men had flung themselves from buildings or shot themselves. It was that time no American ever wanted to repeat. Buy, in 2023. with no new debt ceiling and no movement of the budget, financial ruin was in the cards for everyone.

Seniors on Social Security; Veterans that expected checks; Disabled folks depending on monthly support - all will be part of the new Bonus Army, or perhaps an earlier, late 19th Century, Coxy's Army, marching on D.C. to right the wrongs and confront Congressional corruption. Has America's "little man" ever been treated as a citizen?

In 2023 it was gross corruption. A Congress that does not represent "we the people".  A Congress that holds on to power and enriches itself.

The failure in 2023 to set a path toward financial recovery and to chart a plan to eliminate blatant spending by both parties would destroy the Republic. Is it any wonder certain politicians strove to eliminate history from the nation's curricula? 

 

The Crimean War Disrupted European Peace and branded Russia the Aggressor  mike Streich 

 

In 1853 the Metternich system, designed to control and mediate conflicts between the great powers of Europe, fell apart with the outbreak of the Crimean War. For the first time since the 1815 Congress of Vienna, the major powers were at war with each other, Britain and France supporting the Ottoman Empire against Russia. Although the war was preventable and foolish, the results paved the way for a new order after 1856.

 

Napoleon III of France and Tsar Nicholas I of Russia

 

The conflict began when Napoleon III approached the Ottoman Empire with an offer to act as protector of Christians within the Ottoman lands. Additionally, the Roman Catholic Church sought to act as custodians of the sacred sites in the Holy Land. Nicholas I was outraged, seeing himself as the protector of Orthodox Christians and demanded that the Holy Land sites continue to be served by Orthodox priests. This “quarrel of monks” led to the break of relations between Russia and the Ottoman Empire.

 

Historians offer additional, perhaps more salient motives for Russian and French actions. MacKenzie [1] cites the overconfidence of Nicholas I following Russian success in assisting with the suppression of European popular revolts in 1848. Henry Kissinger [2] refers to the long standing Russian aim of controlling Constantinople and the Dardanelles. Others highlight Napoleon III’s desire to break out of European isolation and possibly destroy the Holy Alliance.

 

Outbreak of the Crimean War

 

In October 1853, Turkey declared war on Russia following Russian troop movements into Moldavia and Wallachia (Danubian Principalities). Shortly thereafter, Russian Admiral Nakhimov discovered the Turkish fleet at Sinope and destroyed it. The “Sinope Massacre” was enough to compel the British to send their fleet into the Black Sea.

 

Russia, relying upon Austrian support, was severely disappointed when the Austrians remained neutral in the conflict and occupied the Principalities upon Russian withdrawal early in the war. This “monstrous ingratitude,” as Nicholas I terms it, exacerbated the tenuous Russian military situation because the Russian commander, Field Marshall Paskevich, had dispersed Russian troops throughout the empire to control possible insurrections.

 

Austria’s actions may have been motivated by the fear that in supporting Russia, France would seize the opportunity to acquire Italian provinces dominated by Austria. By effectively rejecting the Russian alliance that dated to 1815, Austria may have hastened the rise of Prussia, also neutral in the conflict.

 

Course of the War

 

With the Russian withdrawal from the Principalities, the focus of the war shifted to the Crimea and the 60,000 troops poised to take Sevastapol. Although predominantly British and French, the allied force included thousands of Turkish troops under the command of Omer Pasha as well as 16,000 troops from Piedmont-Sardinia. Count Cavour of Piedmont-Sardina cunningly deduced that an allied victory would include his nation at the peace table, furthering his goal of Italian unification.

 

The Russians were initially defeated at the Alma River and withdrew to Sevastapol, strengthening their defenses. The ensuing battles included the legendary Charge of the Light Brigade at Balaklava as well as the “Thin Red Line” that held back an onslaught of Russian cavalry. In the end, Sevastapol fell and Russia, now under Tsar Alexander II, agreed to a peace conference.

 

Results of the Crimean War

 

The war highlighted the need for Russian military and economic reform. No railroad track was available below Moscow, imposing a tremendous burden on troop movements and supplies. Both sides fought using strategies that dated back to the venerable Duke of Wellington in 1815.

 

Old alliances were broken as Russia began to look with greater interest at the Balkans, promoting Pan-Slavism and eventually conflicting with Austrian goals in that region. Prussia’s Otto von Bismarck, the “honest broker,” used the events to plot the expansion of Prussia by developing new diplomatic ties and alliances. The Crimean War would create a new European balance of power.

 

Sources:

 

Paul Kennedy, The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers: Economic Change and Military Conflict From 1500 to 2000 (New York: Random House, 1987).

[2] Henry Kissinger, Diplomacy (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1994).

[1] David MacKenzie and Michael W. Curran, A History of Russia, the Soviet Union, and Beyond 4^th Ed. (Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing Company, 1993).

Alan Palmer, The Decline and Fall of the Ottoman Empire (New York: Barnes and Noble, 1992).

Tags

Crimea  Light Brigade  Piedmont Sardinia  Napoleon III Tsar Nicholas II

 Khartoum in the 1880's: the Revolt of Muhammad Ahmad and the murder of General Charles Gordon

by Michael Streich

In the early 1880s, a Muslim uprising began in the Sudan, threatening Egypt and British colonial interests. The leader of the revolt was Muhammad Ahmad who called himself the “Mahdi” or expected one. His object was to restore Muslim practices and eradicate foreign influences. Through awe and fear, the Mahdi managed to gather thousands of loyal followers. Ultimately, Great Britain was obliged to address the situation, and did so by sending a national hero to Khartoum, General Charles Gordon, known as “Chinese” Gordon for his leadership in suppressing the Taiping Uprising in China some years earlier.

 

Early Attempts to Restore Peace

 

The liberal government of Prime Minister William Gladstone was discussing down-sizing imperial military commitments and rejected any initial appeals to significantly take on the Sudanese uprising. Sudan was a province of Egypt, which was, ostensibly, part of the Ottoman Empire but “advised” by the British through their proconsul, Lord Cromer.

 

The Egyptian khedive hired a British colonel and tasked him with leading an army into the Sudan to destroy the Mahdi. Given the rank of general in the Egyptian army, William Hicks led a force of 10,000 men (some estimates are lower) into the one million square miles of desert. Ambushed, Hicks and his entire command were annihilated virtually to the last man. Although subsequent forays led by Valentine Baker and Lt. General Gerald Graham were slightly more successful, public outcry in Britain forced the government to react.

 

Chinese Gordon is sent to Evacuate Khartoum

 

Charles Gordon was seen as a “Christian soldier,” who, as previous Governor General of Equatoria and then the full Sudan, ended slavery. He knew the Bible well and had even managed to locate the site of the Genesis “Garden of Eden.” As a soldier, Gordon was a sapper – a military engineer. This would serve him well when forced to fortify Khartoum.

 

Yet Gordon was also fiercely independent and whose personal view of justice conflicted with political prerogatives. Stubborn, insubordinate, and frequently arrogant, he traveled up the Nile River to evacuate the Europeans and Egyptians despite having publicly criticized this policy in the British press only weeks before the assignment was given. Gordon had his own agenda. He would defend Khartoum against the Mahdi.

 

The Relief of Gordon

 

By 1884 it became apparent that Gordon was not leaving Khartoum. The prospect of his death and the loss of the Sudan prompted national outcry in Britain, including Queen Victoria who pressured Prime Minister Gladstone into sending a relief force. On March 25^th, the Queen wrote the Secretary of War, Lord Hartington (a hawk in the Cabinet), “Gordon is in danger: you are bound to try to save him.”

 

Gordon was a living symbol of all that Britons saw of their empire and their values. In death, he became, according to Karl Meyer, “a devout martyr who died bravely while on an impossible mission for an ingrate government.” In Parliament, Gladstone’s government narrowly averted a vote of censure.

 

Ultimately, General, Sir Garnet Wolseley was sent to Cairo to command a relief force of 10,000 British soldiers. Wolseley was a friend of Charles Gordon and a bitter critic of Gladstone, whom he blamed for Gordon’s death. Through brilliantly improvised tactics, including the construction of hundreds of specially designed boats that could navigate the Nile cataracts, the relief expedition moved up the Nile.

 

“Too Late”

 

The forces of the Mahdi breached Khartoum’s defenses in January 1885, slaughtering the inhabitants and murdering Governor-General Charles Gordon. His severed head was paraded before the Mahdi on a pike. Referring to Prime Minister Gladstone, General Wolseley wrote in his journal, “He is responsible for Gordon’s death and all the bloodshed and horrors attendant upon the fall of Khartoum.” (Tuesday, 17^th February, 1885)

 

Sources:

 

Byron Farwell, Queen Victoria’s Little Wars (New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 1972)

Karl E. Meyer and Shareen Blair Brysac, Kingmakers: The Invention of the Modern Middle East (New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 2008)

Lytton Strachey, Eminent Victorians New York: Harvest Books/Harcourt Brace & Company, 1969)

Lord Garnet Wolseley, In Relief of Gordon: Lord Wolseley’s Campaign Journal of the Khartoum Relief Expedition 1884-1885, edited by Adrian Preston (London: Hutchinson Press, 1967)

How Social Security was Born: Not a Bonus, But a Guaranteed Retirement for all Americans Michael Streich

 

Formally known as the Wagner-Lewis-Doughton social security bill, the Social Security Act was passed by Congress June 19, 1935 and signed into law as immediate legislation by President Franklin D. Roosevelt. Old age benefits were discussed by Roosevelt and key supporters who would hold positions in his administration before his 1933 inauguration. His Secretary of Labor, Frances Perkins, writes that Roosevelt, “…always regarded the Social Security Act as the cornerstone of his administration…” Not all Americans supported the measure, referring to the act as “socialism.” It is still considered controversial and falls under Congressional scrutiny whenever Republicans make significant gains in Congressional representation, as happened most recently in the 2010 midterm elections.

 

The Social Security Act Begins as an Unemployment Insurance Measure

 

During the heady days of FDR’s first Hundred Days, New York Senator Robert Wagner and Rep. David J. Lewis of Maryland approached Roosevelt with a rudimentary bill to provide unemployment insurance. Roosevelt, however, wanted to include social security. Concerns over benefits for America’s seniors arose out of the popularity of the Townsend Movement. This movement proposed generous old age pensions at federal expense.

 

The 1935 bill was the product of many lengthy committee hearings, unending hours of research, and continual brainstorming by FDR’s brain-trust. The initial measure included a health care plan, but this part of the bill was dropped as Roosevelt knew the medical establishment would oppose it, and the rest of the bill was not to be opened to the danger of failure.

 

Passing Social Security and Unemployment Insurance

 

Combining Social Security and unemployment benefits was the recommendation of Harry Hopkins, one of FDR’s key advisers. Unlike other New Deal programs, it was to be a permanent program and not deficit funded. Roosevelt stated, “We can’t sell the United States short in 1980 any more than in 1935.”

 

Roosevelt might have been astounded that in 1980, Ronald Reagan was elected President, beginning the tide of conservative ascendancy in the Congress. By 1985, into his second term, the Senate Budget Committee, led by New Mexico Senator Pete Domenici, recommended a one-year freeze on Social Security benefits.

 

As passed in 1935, Social Security was limited. During Committee hearings, Treasury Secretary Henry Morgenthau opposed a universal system, suggesting that rural farm workers be exempted as well as small businesses that employed less than ten people. Frances Perkins recounts in her memoirs, none of the provisions would completely solve the nation’s poverty, but it was the first step in solving future depression-condition problems.

 

Opposition to Social Security during the New Deal and Beyond

 

No emergency legislation will make an immediate difference without the necessary funding. Before Congress adjourned in the summer of 1935, Louisiana Senator Huey Long, one of Roosevelt’s most ardent critics, mounted a filibuster to stop any funding legislation. His filibuster lasted until adjournment and Roosevelt was forced to creatively look for temporary workers to help set up the newly independent agency.

 

Others, like Oklahoma Senator Thomas Gore, asked Secretary Perkins during a hearing “isn’t this like socialism?” The entire notion of “cradle to grave” federal entitlement reeked of socialism for stalwart GOP lawmakers. These views were vocally resurrected every time Congress expanded Social Security.

 

In 2010 and again in 2011, Social Security recipients received no cost-of-living adjustments (COLAs) yet their Medicare contribution costs rose. In the 2010 midterm election, most seniors voted Republican.

 

Senator-elect Rand Paul of Kentucky campaigned on the promise that he opposes “any cuts in benefits for seniors” and “raising the Social Security retirement age…” Days after the election, however, he said “everything is on the table” to balance the budget. (ABC News, November 3, 2010)

 

National Health Care Tied to the Social Security Bill

 

Although Roosevelt cut health care from the 1935 bill, when Congress revisited Social Security in 1939 Senator Wagner attempted to add amendments, including a disability benefit. Congress voted down these expansions.

 

Wagner’s 1939 Health Bill was designed to expand unemployment benefits and Social Security. This was not a universal, federally mandated health plan such as found in other nations. Opting into the plan was not mandatory nor did his bill include forcing Americans to purchase health insurance.

 

Nevertheless, it was severely attacked, most notably by the American Medical Association and the pharmaceutical industry. Universal health care had been attempted since 1915 and was deemed a progressive measure. Not until March 2009 would Congress enact a health care bill that provided affordable coverage for all Americans.

 

The Role of Government during Periods of Economic Hard Times

 

Conservative Republicans led by President Herbert Hoover in the early years of the Great Depression abhorred federal intervention that amounted to any hint of welfare. Even Franklin Roosevelt rejected the government “dole.” But Roosevelt and the liberal Democrats believed that the role of the federal government was to stimulate the economy by putting people to work and providing safety mechanisms like unemployment insurance.

 

Advisers like Frances Perkins made the argument that even a minimal unemployment payout in the first weeks of unemployment would stop evictions and enable breadwinners to provide for their families.

 

Senator Wagner stated that, “Industry can not run with the mechanical perfection of a gyroscope and out of simple caution we must continue to devise methods of dealing with those who may be severed from their normal work despite our best efforts.”

 

Social Security provided one concrete method for ensuring the survival of American retirees. It continues to do so today. For most, the monthly payout represents a fixed income that covers the bare necessities. Any tampering with those benefits would be criminal to the millions who paid into the system all of their lives.

 

Sources:

 

Lewis L. Gould, The Most Exclusive Club (Basic Books, 2005)

J. Joseph Huthmacher, Senator Robert F. Wagner and the Rise of Urban Liberalism (Atheneum, 1968)

Frances Perkins, The Roosevelt I Knew (Viking Press, 1946 First Edition)